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The learning path

All 145 grammar topics in the order in which they support one another — numbered from 1 to 145.

The level is the crossbar, not the queue. Within a level several strands run side by side: someone working on the present tense can learn the articles alongside it, without either having to wait for the other. The waiting happens between levels — skip one and you are working on something that is missing three prerequisites.

The number is calculated, not assigned: level, then strand, then area. It changes when a topic is added, and that is as it should be — a fixed number would only be right until somebody writes something new.

Whether you have already read a topic is known only to your browser. With JavaScript the path shows it; without, it stays complete, just without your progress.

1 Sounds and tones, simple sentences, the first measure words.

Steps 1 to 27 of 145

Sounds, characters and the basic sentence12

  1. 1Reading pinyinInitials, finals, and the handful of letters that do not sound the way English reads them.
  2. 2The four tonesEvery syllable has a pitch shape, and a different shape makes a different word.
  3. 3Tone changesTwo third tones in a row, and the words yī and bù, change their tone before another syllable.
  4. 4What a character isOne character is one syllable with a meaning, built from a small set of recurring parts.
  5. 5Word orderSubject, verb, object as in English — but time and place come before the verb, and the verb never changes.
  6. 6A is B with shìShì links two nouns — “A is B” — but never a noun and an adjective.
  7. 7Adjectives as predicatesAn adjective works like a verb on its own; hěn usually stands before it, often meaning no more than “is”.
  8. 8Having and existing with yǒuYǒu means both “to have” and “there is”, and its negative is always méiyǒu.
  9. 9Negation with bù and méiBù negates what you do, want or are; méi negates what did not happen, and the verb yǒu.
  10. 10Yes-no questions with maAdd ma to the end of a statement and it becomes a question; answer by repeating the verb.
  11. 11Question wordsA question word stands where the answer will stand, and the sentence keeps its statement order.
  12. 12The particle neNe after a noun asks “and what about …?” or “where is …?”; at the end of a statement it marks something still going on.

Time, aspect and the verb5

  1. 13Time words before the verbWhen something happens goes before the verb, and a date or a clock time runs from the biggest unit to the smallest.
  2. 14Being somewhere and doing something there with zàiZài says where something is, and before another verb it says where the action happens.
  3. 15On, in, under: place words after the nounChinese says “the table on” rather than “on the table”: the word for the position follows the noun.
  4. 16Would like and want: xiǎng and yàoXiǎng is a gentle wish, yào a firm intention or a need — and “don’t want to” is bù xiǎng.
  5. 17Can because you learned it: huìHuì is “can” for a skill you have learned — and also “will” for what is likely to happen.

Nouns, measure words and comparison8

  1. 18Counting with shí, bǎi, qiān and wànTen digits and four place words build every number up to the hundred millions.
  2. 19Two kinds of two: èr and liǎngÈr is the digit you count with; liǎng is the two you have of something.
  3. 20Number, measure word, nounA number never stands directly before a noun: a measure word goes between them.
  4. 21This, that and which: zhè, nà and nǎZhè and nà point, nǎ asks — and before a noun all three want a measure word.
  5. 22The suffix men: a plural for peopleMen makes the pronouns plural and can follow a noun for people — and nothing else.
  6. 23Asking how many: jǐ and duōshaoJǐ expects a small number and takes a measure word; duōshao expects any number and can do without one.
  7. 24Possession with de: wǒ de shūOwner, de, thing: de works like the English 's, and drops out between a pronoun and family or a group.
  8. 25More and most: gèng and zuìGèng before an adjective means “more” or “even more”; zuì means “most”.

Sentence patterns and linking clauses1

  1. 26Also and all: yě and dōuYě adds “too”, dōu sums up “all” — and both stand between the subject and the verb.

Tone, politeness and set expressions1

  1. 27Polite address: nín and titlesNín is the polite “you”, and people are addressed by family name plus title, in that order.

2 了(le), 过(guo) and 在(zài), comparisons, the first complements.

Steps 28 to 71 of 145

Sounds, characters and the basic sentence5

  1. 28Light syllables and the r endingMany words end in an unstressed syllable, and some take an r sound on the end.
  2. 29Characters and wordsMost words have two characters, and nothing on the page shows where one word ends.
  3. 30Chinese punctuationEach mark fills a full square, lists have a comma of their own, and numbers are written in digits or characters.
  4. 31A-not-A questionsSay the verb, then bù and the verb again, and you have a question without ma.
  5. 32Or: háishi and huòzhěHáishi offers a choice in a question; huòzhě joins two possibilities in a statement.

Time, aspect and the verb20

  1. 33From … to … with cóng and dàoCóng marks where or when something starts, dào where or when it ends, and the frame goes before the verb.
  2. 34How far from: líLí measures the gap between two places: A lí B, then near, far or a distance.
  3. 35Zài, yǒu and shì for where things areA known thing + zài + place; a place + yǒu + something new; a place + shì + what fills it.
  4. 36How long: the length of time after the verbA point in time goes before the verb, a length of time after it.
  5. 37When, before and after: de shíhou, yǐqián and yǐhòuA whole clause becomes a time phrase with de shíhou, yǐqián or yǐhòu after it, and it goes before the main clause.
  6. 38Verb + le: an action done and completeLe straight after a verb presents an action as finished and complete — most often with a number or an amount after it.
  7. 39Sentence-final le: something has changedLe at the very end of a sentence says that a situation is new: it has changed, or it is now the case.
  8. 40Méi and méiyǒu: it did not happenTo say that something did not happen, put méi or méiyǒu before the verb — and drop le.
  9. 41Guo: having done something beforeGuo after a verb says that something has happened at least once, at some point in the past.
  10. 42Zài and zhèngzài … ne: an action in progressZài or zhèngzài before the verb, often with ne at the end, says that an action is going on.
  11. 43About to happen: yào … le, kuài … le, jiù yào … leYào, kuài or jiù yào before the verb and le at the end say that something is just about to happen.
  12. 44Shì … de: when, where and how it happenedWhen both speakers know that something happened, shì … de puts the spotlight on a detail: when, where, how, or with whom.
  13. 45Hái méi … ne: not yetHái méi before the verb, often with ne at the end, says that something has not happened yet but is expected to.
  14. 46Néng and kěyǐ: able to and allowed toNéng is being able in the circumstances, kěyǐ is being allowed — and when you ask permission, both will do.
  15. 47Should: yīnggāiYīnggāi gives advice or says what is right — and also what you would expect to be the case.
  16. 48Maybe and probably: kěnéngKěnéng says something may be so — before the verb, or at the start of the sentence for the whole statement.
  17. 49Result complementsA second word straight after the verb says what the action achieved: finished, understood, found, done wrong.
  18. 50How well: the degree complement with deVerb, then de, then an adjective: how an action is done or how well.
  19. 51Coming and going: lái and qù after the verbLái after a verb points towards the speaker, qù points away.
  20. 52How often: cì, biàn, tàng and yíxiàA number with cì, biàn or tàng after the verb says how many times; yíxià makes an action short and casual.

Nouns, measure words and comparison7

  1. 53The everyday measure wordsAbout fifteen measure words cover daily life, and most of them sort nouns by shape or by kind.
  2. 54First, half, per cent and twice: dì, fēnzhī and bèiDì before a number makes it an ordinal; a fraction names the whole first; bèi multiplies.
  3. 55Describing a noun: adjective, de, nounAn adjective with a word like hěn in front of it takes de before the noun; a bare one-syllable adjective usually joins the noun directly.
  4. 56De without a noun: mine, the red one, the sellerWhen the noun is clear or general, it can be left out, and the phrase with de stands for it.
  5. 57Comparing with bǐA, then bǐ, then B, then the adjective — and no hěn in front of it.
  6. 58Not as … as: méiyǒu … nàmeA méiyǒu B (nàme) and an adjective says that A does not come up to B.
  7. 59The same and different: gēn … yíyàngA gēn B yíyàng says that A and B are the same; an adjective after it says in what way.

Sentence patterns and linking clauses9

  1. 60Giving somebody something: two objectsWith verbs like gěi, sòng, jiāo, wèn and gàosu, the person comes first and the thing second, both straight after the verb.
  2. 61Three kinds of again: hái, zài and yòuYòu is again for what has happened, zài is again for what has not, and hái is still or as well.
  3. 62Already and once: yǐjīng and céngjīngYǐjīng with le says something is done by now; céngjīng with guo says it happened once and is over.
  4. 63Only: zhǐ and jiùZhǐ limits what follows it and stands before the verb; to put “only” in front of a person, say zhǐyǒu.
  5. 64How often: from always to neverChángcháng, jīngcháng, zǒngshì, yìzhí, yǒushíhou and cónglái bù or méi — all before the verb.
  6. 65Because and so: yīnwèi … suǒyǐThe reason comes first with yīnwèi and the result second with suǒyǐ — and Chinese is happy to use both words at once.
  7. 66Although: suīrán … dànshìSuīrán admits something and dànshì or kěshì sets the contrast against it — Chinese says both words where English says only one.
  8. 67If: rúguǒ … jiùThe condition comes first with rúguǒ or yàoshi, and the consequence follows with jiù after its subject.
  9. 68First, then: xiān … ránhòuXiān marks the first step; ránhòu, zài, jiēzhe and yǐhòu bring in the next one.

Tone, politeness and set expressions3

  1. 69Ba: suggestions, guesses and softer commandsBa at the end of a sentence turns it into a suggestion, a guess that asks to be confirmed, or a gentler request.
  2. 70A and its sound changes: ya, wa, naA at the end of a sentence adds warmth, surprise or urgency, and it takes on the sound of the word before it.
  3. 71Asking politelyQǐng, máfan nǐ and néngbunéng make a request polite; yíxià and a doubled verb make it light.

3 Complements, 把(bǎ) and 被(bèi), linked sentences.

Steps 72 to 100 of 145

Time, aspect and the verb9

  1. 72Towards: wǎng, xiàng and cháoWǎng points a movement somewhere, xiàng can also aim at a person, and cháo says which way something faces.
  2. 73Two le in one sentence, and when to leave le outVerb-le plus sentence-le says that something has gone on up to now — and many past sentences need no le at all.
  3. 74Zhe: a lasting state, and doing while doingZhe after a verb describes the state an action leaves behind — and, before a second verb, the way something is done.
  4. 75Must and need not: děi, bìxū and búyòngDěi is the everyday “have to”, bìxū the firm “must” of rules — and the negative of both is búyòng.
  5. 76Willing, daring, agreeing: yuànyì, gǎn and kěnYuànyì is being willing, gǎn having the nerve, and kěn agreeing to do what you were asked.
  6. 77Compound direction complementsA verb of movement, a direction word and lái or qù: zǒu jìnlai, ná chūlai, pǎo huíqu.
  7. 78Can or cannot: potential complementsDe or bu between a verb and its complement says whether the result is possible: kàndedǒng, kànbudǒng.
  8. 79How long, with an objectA length of time goes after the verb; with an object as well, say the verb twice or put the time before the object.
  9. 80Extremely: jíle, de hěn, sǐle and huàileAfter an adjective, jíle, de hěn, sǐle or huàile push it to an extreme.

Nouns, measure words and comparison5

  1. 81Roughly: approximate numbersDuō, jǐ, zuǒyòu, shàngxià and two neighbouring numbers make a number vague, each in its own place.
  2. 82Clauses before the noun: the book I bought yesterdayA whole clause can describe a noun: it stands before the noun, ends in de, and needs no who, which or that.
  3. 83Three characters for one sound: de, de and deOne neutral-tone de is written three ways: before a noun, before a verb, and after a verb.
  4. 84How much more: amounts after the adjectiveThe size of a difference comes after the adjective: a little, much, or an exact amount.
  5. 85More and more: yuèláiyuè and yuè … yuèYuèláiyuè describes a change that keeps growing; yuè … yuè ties one change to another.

Sentence patterns and linking clauses12

  1. 86The bǎ sentenceBǎ brings a definite object in front of the verb to say what was done to it, and the verb cannot stand bare at the end.
  2. 87The passive with bèiBèi puts the one who undergoes an action first and the doer after bèi, and it usually reports something unwelcome.
  3. 88Two verbs in a rowOne subject, two verb phrases one after the other: the first says where or how, the second says what for.
  4. 89Making and asking somebody: ràng, jiào, qǐngThe person after ràng, jiào or qǐng is the object of the first verb and the subject of the second.
  5. 90Even: lián … dōu and lián … yěLián picks out the most extreme case, and dōu or yě after it says that the statement holds even there.
  6. 91Sooner or later: jiù and cáiJiù says it happened earlier or more easily than expected; cái says it happened later or with more trouble.
  7. 92Just now: gāng and gāngcáiGāng is an adverb glued to the verb; gāngcái is a time word for a few minutes ago.
  8. 93As soon as: yī … jiùYī before the first verb and jiù before the second: the second thing follows straight on from the first.
  9. 94Not only … but also: búdàn … érqiěBúdàn sets up a first point and érqiě adds a second, usually a stronger one.
  10. 95As long as and only if: zhǐyào and zhǐyǒuZhǐyào … jiù names a condition that is enough; zhǐyǒu … cái names the one condition without which nothing happens.
  11. 96Except and besides: chúle … yǐwàiChúle sets something aside; the adverb that follows decides whether it is left out or added in.
  12. 97Two at once: yìbiān … yìbiān and yòu … yòuYìbiān … yìbiān puts two actions side by side; yòu … yòu puts two qualities side by side.

Tone, politeness and set expressions3

  1. 98Ne in depth: what about, still, and a gentle pointNe asks “and what about …?”, keeps a situation going, makes a question thoughtful, and quietly points something out.
  2. 99Modesty and complimentsA compliment is turned aside rather than simply accepted, and what is your own is played down.
  3. 100In order to: wèileWèile puts the purpose first: in order to do this, somebody does that.

4 Finer connectives, framing expressions.

Steps 101 to 124 of 145

Time, aspect and the verb1

  1. 101When direction is not about spaceQǐlai, xiàqu, chūlai and xiàlai also mean starting, carrying on, bringing to light and settling.

Nouns, measure words and comparison2

  1. 102Every one: doubled measure words and nounsA measure word or a one-syllable noun said twice means every one of them, usually with dōu after it.
  2. 103Falling short: bùrúA bùrú B means that A is not as good as B — and bùrú before an action suggests a better plan.

Sentence patterns and linking clauses10

  1. 104Passives with ràng, jiào and gěiIn speech ràng and jiào often stand where bèi would, gěi can stand before the verb, and many passives need no marker at all.
  2. 105Appearing, disappearing and existingPlace first, then the verb, then the new arrival: the order Chinese uses for something that is somewhere, turns up or goes away.
  3. 106Emphasis with shì and with question wordsA stressed shì insists that something really is so, and a question word before dōu or yě means everybody, everything or anywhere.
  4. 107Finally and on earth: zhōngyú, dàodǐ and jiūjìngZhōngyú is relief at the end of a wait; dàodǐ and jiūjìng press for the real answer.
  5. 108Originally, it turns out, actually: běnlái, yuánlái and qíshíBěnlái recalls a plan that changed, yuánlái announces a discovery, and qíshí corrects an impression.
  6. 109Even if: jíshǐ … yěJíshǐ supposes something, even something unlikely, and yě says that the result stands all the same.
  7. 110No matter: wúlùn and bùguǎn … dōuWúlùn or bùguǎn opens a range of possibilities, and dōu or yě says the result is the same for all of them.
  8. 111Since, given that: jìrán … jiùJìrán takes something both speakers already accept, and jiù draws the conclusion from it.
  9. 112Otherwise: fǒuzé, bùrán, yàobùránFirst what should happen, then fǒuzé or bùrán and what will follow if it does not.
  10. 113Adding and going further: érqiě, bìngqiě, shènzhìÉrqiě adds a point, bìngqiě adds a step in a more formal register, and shènzhì goes as far as the surprising extreme.

Tone, politeness and set expressions11

  1. 114The ma of the obvious, and beiA second ma, written with a different character, says “it is obvious”; bei adds “so just do that, simple as that”.
  2. 115As far as … is concerned: duì … lái shuōDuì, a person or group, then lái shuō — the frame that says whose point of view a judgement holds for.
  3. 116About and regarding: guānyú and duìyúGuānyú names the subject matter something is about; duìyú names what an attitude or a treatment is aimed at.
  4. 117By means of and through: tōngguòTōngguò names the means, the method or the go-between through which something is done — and as a verb it means to pass.
  5. 118Along with change: suízheSuízhe ties one change to another: as the first develops, the second follows.
  6. 119According to: gēnjù and ànzhàoGēnjù names the basis a conclusion is drawn from; ànzhào names the rule or plan an action follows.
  7. 120Owing to: yóuyúYóuyú gives a cause in a measured, written tone — at the front of the sentence, often with yīncǐ after it.
  8. 121Under, in and in terms of: zài … xià, zhōng, shàngZài, a noun and xià, zhōng or shàng set the condition, the process or the area a statement holds in.
  9. 122Worth it, hard to, no choice but: zhíde, nányǐ, bùdébùZhíde says an action is worth it, nányǐ says it can hardly be done, bùdébù says there was no way round it.
  10. 123It seems and apparently: kànqǐlai, kànlái, tīngshuō, jùshuōFour ways to say that something seems so — from how it looks, from what you conclude, or from what you have heard.
  11. 124However much: zěnme yě, zěnme dōu, zài … yěZěnme yě or zěnme dōu before a negative says that no way works; zài … yě says that even more would not help.

5 Written style, four-character expressions, stance.

Steps 125 to 145 of 145

Sentence patterns and linking clauses3

  1. 125Adverbs of attitude: jiǎnzhí, jīhū, piānpiān, fǎnzhèng, bìjìngFive adverbs that add no facts but tell the listener how to take them.
  2. 126Concession in writing: jǐnguǎn and nǎpàJǐnguǎn admits a fact more firmly than suīrán; nǎpà supposes the worst or smallest case and says it changes nothing.
  3. 127Rather than: yǔqí … bùrú and nìngkě … yě bùYǔqí … bùrú weighs two options and picks the second; nìngkě … yě bù accepts a cost rather than do something.

Tone, politeness and set expressions18

  1. 128Éryǐ, bàle and jiùshì le: only, that is allÉryǐ and bàle close a sentence with “only, nothing more”; jiùshì le closes it with “and that settles it”.
  2. 129The formal register of letters and businessA small set of words — guì, běn, bì, guānglín, fǔshàng, gōngxǐ — raises the other side and lowers your own in formal speech and writing.
  3. 130Taking something as: yǐ … wéi …Yǐ X wéi Y says that X is taken as, treated as or made into Y — a compact frame from written Chinese.
  4. 131Even and let alone: shènzhì and hékuàngShènzhì climbs to the surprising case; hékuàng points to the case that follows all the more.
  5. 132Not necessarily: wèibì, bújiànde and bù yídìngThree ways to doubt that something must be so — without saying that it is not.
  6. 133As for: zhìyúZhìyú opens a clause about the next point; bú zhìyú says it will not come to that.
  7. 134On the contrary: fǎn'ér and dàoFǎn'ér turns the expected result upside down; dào does the same, more softly, in speech.
  8. 135Surprise and confirmation: jìngrán and guǒránJìngrán says nobody expected it; guǒrán says somebody did, and was right.
  9. 136In case and once: wànyī and yídànWànyī prepares for what you hope will not happen; yídàn names the point after which things change.
  10. 137So as not to: miǎnde, yǐmiǎn and shěngdeThree words that open a second clause and name the trouble the first clause is meant to avoid.
  11. 138Surely not? The rhetorical nándàoNándào asks a question that already holds its answer — the opposite of what it says.
  12. 139In short, in other words: zǒngzhī and huànjùhuàshuōZǒngzhī sums up what came before; huànjùhuàshuō says it again in other words.
  13. 140Four-character expressions: chéngyǔ in a sentenceHow the four-syllable idioms are built, where they go in a sentence, and why they never take hěn.
  14. 141Zhī and qí in modern writingZhī is the written de and lives on in fixed forms like zhīyī and zhījiān; qí means its, their or of them.
  15. 142The written prepositions yú and yǐ, and the link érYú marks place, time, comparison and target in writing; yǐ means with, by or so that; ér links two parts and often contrasts them.
  16. 143Written adverbs: jiāng, yǐ, wèi, jūn, jiēFive single characters that written Chinese uses for will, already, not yet and all.
  17. 144Suǒ before a verb, and the passive wéi … suǒSuǒ before a verb points at the thing that is done; wéi … suǒ … is the passive of written prose.
  18. 145Spoken and written Chinese side by sideMany spoken words have a written partner — yóuyú for yīnwèi, rán'ér for dànshì, yīncǐ for suǒyǐ, ruò for rúguǒ — and a text keeps to one of the two.

All topics as an overview What each level means