N2 · Written Japanese
Linking without て
the continuative form in writing
In writing, a clause often ends on the bare stem and a comma, where speech would use the te-form.
In speech, two clauses are joined with the て-form: 駅に行って、電車に乗った. In writing the same join is usually made with the bare stem of the verb — the form before ます — and a comma: 駅に行き、電車に乗った. This is the continuative form, and it is everywhere in newspapers, reports and instructions.
Every kind of predicate has one. A verb uses its ます-stem: 書き, 食べ, 見, し, 来. An i-adjective uses its く-form: 高く、. A na-adjective or a noun uses であり: 静かであり、. And ている becomes ており, borrowing the stem of おる: 増えており、.
The meaning is that of the て-form when it lists, sequences or gives a loose reason: this happened, and then that; this is so, and that is so. The stem does not take over the て-form's other jobs — requests with てください, auxiliaries such as てしまう, or the manner of an action, as in 歩いて行く.
The trap for learners is that the て-form's sound changes do not carry over. The continuative is built from the ます-stem, so 読んで corresponds to 読み, 行って to 行き, 書いて to 書き. Shapes such as 読ん、 or 書い、 do not exist.
The form
stem (regular) stem (irregular) auxiliary verb
| write (u-verb) | 書き |
| read (u-verb) | 読み |
| eat (ru-verb) | 食べ |
| do (irregular) | し |
| come (irregular) | 来 |
| is doing: ている becomes ており | 書いており |
| i-adjective | 高く、 |
| na-adjective or noun | 静かであり、 |
The rules one by one
A verb links with its ます-stem and a comma.
資料を集め、報告書を作成した。We collected the material and drew up a report.
ている becomes ており.
気温は上昇しており、今後も続く見込みである。Temperatures are rising and are expected to keep doing so.
An i-adjective links with く; a na-adjective or a noun with であり.
この地域は冬が長く、雪が多い。Winters in this region are long and snowy.
The stem keeps no trace of the te-form sound changes: 読んで corresponds to 読み.
本を読み、感想を書いた。I read the book and wrote down my impressions.
A closer look
Not every て goes
Writers do not replace every て. Where two actions belong tightly together — one is the manner of the other, or they form a single movement — the て-form stays: 座って読む, 持って行く. The stem appears where a sentence joins two separate statements.
A long written sentence often uses both, with the stem at the major joints and て inside the clauses: 駅を出て右に曲がり、…. In conversation the stem sounds stiff, like reading aloud from a report, and is best left to the page and to formal speeches.
Exceptions and special cases (1)
-
the verb is いる, "to be", on its own
writing uses おり: 会場には多くの人がおり、….
会場には多くの人がおり、中に入れなかった。There were so many people at the venue that we could not get in.
A clause ending on the bare stem い of いる is not used, so writing takes the stem of おる, the verb behind the humble おります — the same borrowing that turns ている into ており. In written prose this おり carries no humility; it is simply the linking form.
How to spot it
- …し、
- …ており、
- …く、
- …であり、
Example sentences
犯人は窓から侵入し、現金を盗んだ。The culprit got in through a window and stole cash.
会議は午前十時に始まり、正午に終わった。The meeting began at ten in the morning and ended at noon.
東京は人口が多く、交通も便利である。Tokyo has a large population, and getting around is easy.
彼は医師であり、研究者でもある。He is a doctor and also a researcher.
現在、工事が行われており、通行できない。Building work is currently under way, and the road is closed.
材料を鍋に入れ、弱火で煮る。Put the ingredients in a pan and simmer over a low heat.
7 more example sentences
雨がやみ、空が明るくなった。The rain stopped and the sky brightened.
駅を出て右に曲がり、最初の角を左に進む。Leave the station, turn right, and take the first turning on the left.
山田氏は大阪に生まれ、東京で育った。Mr Yamada was born in Osaka and grew up in Tokyo.
価格が安く、品質も良い。The price is low and the quality is good too.
政府は新しい方針を発表し、国民に協力を求めた。The government announced its new policy and asked the public to cooperate.
事故の原因は現在調査中であり、詳しいことは分かっていない。The cause of the accident is under investigation, and the details are not yet known.
参加者は全員学生であり、多くが初参加であった。All the participants were students, and many were taking part for the first time.
Worth knowing (1)
-
The negative partner is ず
The continuative has a negative of its own. Where an affirmative clause ends on 行き、, a negative one ends on 行かず、, and ていない becomes ておらず. Both are common in reports, and both are built on the old negative ず.
原因はまだ分かっておらず、調査が続いている。The cause is still not known, and the investigation goes on.
The trap English speakers fall into
Watch out
Learners who know 読んで sometimes build the written form by dropping で. But the continuative is not a shortened て-form; it is the ます-stem, the part of 読みます before ます. Think of the polite form and cut it there.
In writing, end the clause on the ます-stem and a comma — and ている becomes ており.
Your turn
8 exercises on this topic. Your answers are checked in the browser; none of them leaves your device.