N2 · Written Japanese
Written connectives
the joining words of written Japanese
Six words that open a sentence and tell the reader how it stands to the one before.
A Japanese essay or report signals its logic with a word at the start of each sentence, and the words are not the ones used in conversation. Speech says でも and だから; writing says しかし and したがって. Learning the written set is the quickest way to follow an argument on paper, because each word announces what the next sentence is going to do.
しかし is "but, however": the next sentence goes against the one before. したがって is "therefore, consequently": what follows is a logical consequence, and it is the word of conclusions and of rules. また is "also, moreover", adding a further point of the same kind. 一方 is "meanwhile, on the other hand", turning to a different subject for comparison.
The two that English speakers confuse are ただし and なお. ただし adds a condition or an exception to what has just been said — "provided that", "except that" — and it is common in rules, notices and contracts: entry is free; however, children must be accompanied. なお adds a supplementary note — "please note", "in addition" — something worth knowing that does not qualify what came before.
The most common slip is to use ただし as a general "however". It does not set two facts against each other; it restricts a statement. When the second sentence simply goes against the first, the word is しかし.
The form
| but, however | しかし |
| therefore, consequently | したがって |
| provided that, except that | ただし |
| please note, in addition | なお |
| also, moreover | また |
| meanwhile, on the other hand | 一方 |
| the spoken equivalents of the first two | でも、だから |
The rules one by one
しかし contrasts: the next sentence goes against the one before.
計画は順調に進んでいた。しかし、資金が足りなくなった。The plan was going smoothly. However, the money ran short.
したがって draws a conclusion or states a consequence that follows logically.
申し込みの期限は過ぎている。したがって、今回は受け付けられない。The deadline has passed. The application therefore cannot be accepted this time.
ただし adds a condition or an exception to what has just been said.
入場は無料です。ただし、小学生は保護者と一緒に来てください。Admission is free. Primary school children, however, must come with a parent or guardian.
なお adds a supplementary note that does not change what came before.
会議は三時から始めます。なお、資料は当日配布します。The meeting starts at three. Please note that the documents will be handed out on the day.
A closer look
Spoken and written pairs
Most written connectives have a spoken partner, and switching between them is part of switching style. でも becomes しかし; それに becomes また or さらに; and the afterthought あと, "oh, and", becomes なお.
だから has two written partners, and they are not the same. したがって is a logical consequence — a rule applied, a conclusion drawn. そのため is a cause in the world: it rained, so the river rose. Reports that keep the two apart read more precisely, and the distinction is worth imitating.
Exceptions and special cases (1)
-
なお appears inside a sentence rather than at the start
it is an adverb meaning "still" or "even more": なお一層, "all the more".
手術から一年たった今もなお、痛みが残っている。A year after the operation, the pain is still there.
The connective and the adverb are one word. At the start of a sentence it adds a note; before a verb or adjective it intensifies.
How to spot it
- しかし、
- したがって、
- ただし、
- なお、
- また、
- 一方、
Example sentences
努力は大切だ。しかし、努力だけでは成功できない。Effort matters. Effort alone, however, does not bring success.
この薬を飲むと眠くなることがある。したがって、服用後の運転は避けること。This medicine can cause drowsiness. Therefore, do not drive after taking it.
返品は一週間以内なら可能です。ただし、一度使った商品は除きます。Returns are accepted within one week. Items that have been used, however, are excluded.
この町は温泉で有名だ。また、魚がおいしいことでも知られている。This town is famous for its hot springs. It is also known for its excellent fish.
申し込みは今月末までです。なお、定員になり次第締め切ります。Applications close at the end of this month. Please note that they will close earlier if all places are taken.
若者の多くは都市に住みたいと考えている。一方、高齢者は地方での生活を望む傾向がある。Many young people want to live in cities. Older people, on the other hand, tend to prefer life in the regions.
7 more example sentences
技術は進歩した。しかし、問題がすべて解決したわけではない。Technology has advanced. That does not mean, however, that every problem has been solved.
両者の意見は一致しなかった。したがって、結論は次回に持ち越された。The two sides did not agree. The decision was therefore carried over to the next meeting.
参加は自由です。ただし、事前の申し込みが必要です。Anyone may take part. Registration in advance is required, however.
営業時間は十時から七時までです。なお、日曜日は休業です。Opening hours are ten to seven. Please note that we are closed on Sundays.
この方法は費用が安い。また、時間もかからない。This method is cheap. It is also quick.
都市部では地価が上がっている。一方、地方では下落が続いている。Land prices are rising in the cities. In the regions, meanwhile, they continue to fall.
本製品は防水です。ただし、海水での使用はお避けください。This product is waterproof. However, please do not use it in seawater.
Worth knowing (1)
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また also means again
Outside the start of a sentence, また is the everyday adverb "again", as in the farewell またね. The two meanings are easy to tell apart: the connective stands first and is followed by a comma; the adverb sits before a verb.
明日また来ます。I will come again tomorrow.
The trap English speakers fall into
Watch out
English "however" does two jobs: it contrasts two facts, and it adds an exception to a rule. Japanese has a word for each. Rain and a match that went ahead anyway are two facts in contrast, so the word is しかし. ただし would only fit if the second sentence restricted the first, as in "the match goes ahead; however, not in a thunderstorm".
しかし contrasts, ただし restricts, なお adds a note — read the first word and you know what the sentence will do.
Your turn
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