2
Foundations
With 了, 过 and 在 a sentence gets a time without any verb changing: what has happened, what you have done before and what is going on right now.
Comparisons with 比, reasons with 因为 and the first complements after the verb come next. Anyone who gets this far can follow slow everyday Chinese and talk about their own day.
Sounds, characters and the basic sentence5
Sounds and characters
32Light syllables and the r endingMany words end in an unstressed syllable, and some take an r sound on the end.2Characters and wordsMost words have two characters, and nothing on the page shows where one word ends.2Chinese punctuationEach mark fills a full square, lists have a comma of their own, and numbers are written in digits or characters.
The basic sentence
2Nouns, measure words and comparison7
Nouns, numbers and measure words
2The particle de and modification
22Describing a noun: adjective, de, nounAn adjective with a word like hěn in front of it takes de before the noun; a bare one-syllable adjective usually joins the noun directly.2De without a noun: mine, the red one, the sellerWhen the noun is clear or general, it can be left out, and the phrase with de stands for it.
Comparison
32Comparing with bǐA, then bǐ, then B, then the adjective — and no hěn in front of it.2Not as … as: méiyǒu … nàmeA méiyǒu B (nàme) and an adjective says that A does not come up to B.2The same and different: gēn … yíyàngA gēn B yíyàng says that A and B are the same; an adjective after it says in what way.
Time, aspect and the verb20
Time and place
52From … to … with cóng and dàoCóng marks where or when something starts, dào where or when it ends, and the frame goes before the verb.2How far from: líLí measures the gap between two places: A lí B, then near, far or a distance.2Zài, yǒu and shì for where things areA known thing + zài + place; a place + yǒu + something new; a place + shì + what fills it.2How long: the length of time after the verbA point in time goes before the verb, a length of time after it.2When, before and after: de shíhou, yǐqián and yǐhòuA whole clause becomes a time phrase with de shíhou, yǐqián or yǐhòu after it, and it goes before the main clause.
Aspect: le, guo, zhe and zai
82Verb + le: an action done and completeLe straight after a verb presents an action as finished and complete — most often with a number or an amount after it.2Sentence-final le: something has changedLe at the very end of a sentence says that a situation is new: it has changed, or it is now the case.2Méi and méiyǒu: it did not happenTo say that something did not happen, put méi or méiyǒu before the verb — and drop le.2Guo: having done something beforeGuo after a verb says that something has happened at least once, at some point in the past.2Zài and zhèngzài … ne: an action in progressZài or zhèngzài before the verb, often with ne at the end, says that an action is going on.2About to happen: yào … le, kuài … le, jiù yào … leYào, kuài or jiù yào before the verb and le at the end say that something is just about to happen.2Shì … de: when, where and how it happenedWhen both speakers know that something happened, shì … de puts the spotlight on a detail: when, where, how, or with whom.2Hái méi … ne: not yetHái méi before the verb, often with ne at the end, says that something has not happened yet but is expected to.
Modal verbs
32Néng and kěyǐ: able to and allowed toNéng is being able in the circumstances, kěyǐ is being allowed — and when you ask permission, both will do.2Should: yīnggāiYīnggāi gives advice or says what is right — and also what you would expect to be the case.2Maybe and probably: kěnéngKěnéng says something may be so — before the verb, or at the start of the sentence for the whole statement.
Complements after the verb
42Result complementsA second word straight after the verb says what the action achieved: finished, understood, found, done wrong.2How well: the degree complement with deVerb, then de, then an adjective: how an action is done or how well.2Coming and going: lái and qù after the verbLái after a verb points towards the speaker, qù points away.2How often: cì, biàn, tàng and yíxiàA number with cì, biàn or tàng after the verb says how many times; yíxià makes an action short and casual.
Sentence patterns and linking clauses9
Sentence patterns
1Adverbs that carry the grammar
42Three kinds of again: hái, zài and yòuYòu is again for what has happened, zài is again for what has not, and hái is still or as well.2Already and once: yǐjīng and céngjīngYǐjīng with le says something is done by now; céngjīng with guo says it happened once and is over.2Only: zhǐ and jiùZhǐ limits what follows it and stands before the verb; to put “only” in front of a person, say zhǐyǒu.2How often: from always to neverChángcháng, jīngcháng, zǒngshì, yìzhí, yǒushíhou and cónglái bù or méi — all before the verb.
Linking clauses
42Because and so: yīnwèi … suǒyǐThe reason comes first with yīnwèi and the result second with suǒyǐ — and Chinese is happy to use both words at once.2Although: suīrán … dànshìSuīrán admits something and dànshì or kěshì sets the contrast against it — Chinese says both words where English says only one.2If: rúguǒ … jiùThe condition comes first with rúguǒ or yàoshi, and the consequence follows with jiù after its subject.2First, then: xiān … ránhòuXiān marks the first step; ránhòu, zài, jiēzhe and yǐhòu bring in the next one.
Tone, politeness and set expressions3
Sentence-final particles
22Ba: suggestions, guesses and softer commandsBa at the end of a sentence turns it into a suggestion, a guess that asks to be confirmed, or a gentler request.2A and its sound changes: ya, wa, naA at the end of a sentence adds warmth, surprise or urgency, and it takes on the sound of the word before it.