4 · Further patterns
By and due to: 에 의해(서), (으)로 인해(서)
agent and cause in formal language
에 의해(서) names the agent of a passive, (으)로 인해(서) names a cause — both in news, notices and writing.
English “by” after a passive (“decided by a vote”) and “due to” (“cancelled due to snow”) have two formal counterparts. 에 의해 or 에 의해서 marks who or what brought something about, usually before a passive verb in 되다 or -아/어지다: 회의 날짜는 투표에 의해 결정되었습니다, “the date of the meeting was decided by a vote”. (으)로 인해 or (으)로 인해서 names a cause, mostly of something unwelcome: 폭설로 인해 항공편이 취소되었습니다, “flights were cancelled because of heavy snow”.
Both are frozen verb forms (of 의하다 and 인하다), so before a noun they become modifiers: 사람에 의한 실수, “a human error”, 태풍으로 인한 피해, “damage caused by the typhoon”. In writing the older forms 에 의하여 and (으)로 인하여 are common.
(으)로 follows the usual rule: 사고로 after a vowel, 태풍으로 after a consonant, and 발달로 after a noun ending in l, which counts as a vowel here.
This pair belongs to announcements, news, reports and formal writing, and the sentences around it are in -습니다 or the written -다. In conversation Korean says 때문에 for a cause, and it prefers an active sentence to a passive with an agent: “my mother made this cake” is 엄마가 만들었어요, not a passive with 에 의해.
The form
| agent of a passive | 투표에 의해 결정되었습니다 |
| the fuller form | 투표에 의해서 |
| agent, before a noun | 사람에 의한 실수 |
| cause | 사고로 인해 / 태풍으로 인해 |
| cause, before a noun | 태풍으로 인한 피해 |
| written forms | 에 의하여 / 로 인하여 |
The rules one by one
The form this topic is aboutThe word that calls for it
에 의해(서) names the agent of a passive verb.
이 규칙은 학생회에 의해 만들어졌습니다.This rule was made by the student council.
It also means “by means of” a procedure: a vote, a law, a decision.
대표는 회원들의 투표에 의해 선출됩니다.The chair is elected by a vote of the members.
(으)로 인해(서) names a cause, usually of something unwelcome.
폭설로 인해 모든 항공편이 취소되었습니다.All flights were cancelled because of heavy snow.
Before a noun they become 에 의한 and (으)로 인한.
교통사고로 인한 정체가 계속되고 있습니다.The congestion caused by a traffic accident is continuing.
In conversation use 때문에 for a cause and an active sentence instead of an agent.
눈 때문에 비행기가 취소됐어요.The flight was cancelled because of the snow.
A closer look
Written “according to”
The conditional of 의하다 gives the written way to cite a source: 조사에 의하면, “according to the survey”. It means exactly what 에 따르면 means and appears in the same places: news reports, papers, official statements.
Korean is generally less fond of the passive than English, and a passive with an expressed agent is rarer still. Where English writes “the plan was approved by the committee”, a Korean report may well write 위원회가 계획을 승인했다. 에 의해 is used when the result is the topic and the agent is added as information.
How to spot it
- 에 의해
- 에 의해서
- 에 의한
- (으)로 인해
- (으)로 인한
- 되다
- -아/어지다
Example sentences
회의 날짜는 투표에 의해 결정되었습니다.The date of the meeting was decided by a vote.
공사로 인해서 이 길은 이번 주에 통행할 수 없습니다.Because of construction work, this road is closed this week.
화재는 전기 문제로 인해 발생한 것으로 보입니다.The fire appears to have been caused by an electrical fault.
그 섬은 한 어부에 의해 처음 발견되었다고 합니다.The island is said to have been discovered by a fisherman.
기계 고장으로 인해 열차 운행이 잠시 중단되었습니다.Train services were briefly suspended due to a mechanical fault.
태풍으로 인한 피해가 컸습니다.The damage caused by the typhoon was severe.
8 more example sentences
인공 지능 기술의 발달로 인해 많은 일이 바뀌고 있습니다.Many jobs are changing because of advances in artificial intelligence.
이 권리는 법률에 의해 보호받습니다.This right is protected by law.
감기로 인해 결석한 학생이 많습니다.Many pupils are absent because of colds.
기계에 의한 검사보다 사람에 의한 확인이 더 정확합니다.A check by a person is more accurate than an inspection by a machine.
눈으로 인해 길이 미끄러우니 조심하십시오.The roads are slippery because of the snow, so please be careful.
이 다리는 한 젊은 기술자에 의해 설계되었다.This bridge was designed by a young engineer.
정전으로 인해 엘리베이터 운행이 중단되었습니다.The lifts are out of service because of a power cut.
강한 바람에 의해 간판이 떨어졌습니다.A sign was blown down by strong winds.
Worth knowing (1)
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A doer or a cause
Some writers use 에 의해 for causes as well, but the clearer division is the one above: a doer with 에 의해, a cause with (으)로 인해. Notices also use the shorter (으)로 alone: 공사로 통행을 금지합니다.
내부 공사로 오늘은 문을 열지 않습니다.Closed today for renovation work.
The trap English speakers fall into
Watch out
English likes “was made by …”, and the literal translation with 에 의해 is grammatical — but in conversation it sounds like a news report about your grandmother. Spoken Korean makes the person the subject of an active verb, with the honorific if they deserve it.
E uihae for the agent, (eu)ro inhae for the cause — and both for formal texts only.
Your turn
9 exercises on this topic. Your answers are checked in the browser; none of them leaves your device.